THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GLOBAL WARMING, CLIMATE CHANGE, URBAN RESILIENCE AND URBAN LINEAR INFRASTRUCTURES

 

 

 

 

 

Prof. Dr. Firuz Demir Yasamis [1]

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ABSTRACT

This article focuses on the relationship between the effects of global climate change and the resilience capacity of cities against these changes. The increasing threat of climate change significantly impacts urban areas and poses various challenges for city administrations. In this context, the concept of urban resilience has become a crucial key to understanding how cities can be strengthened in terms of resilience, adaptation, and sustainability. The article also explores how urban linear infrastructures, such as critical systems for water management, energy supply, and transportation, can be made more resilient to extreme weather events and other adverse effects caused by climate change. Urban linear infrastructures play a significant role in achieving sustainable development goals and assist urban areas in adapting to environmental changes. By emphasizing the importance of developing strategies to enhance urban resilience and strengthen urban linear infrastructures, this article proposes a comprehensive approach to addressing climate change. This framework can provide guidance for urban planners, local governments, and policymakers, contributing to more effective preparation of urban areas for future climate change risks.

Keywords: Global warming, climate change, urban resilience, urban linear infrastructure, sustainable development, adaptation, water management, energy supply, public transportation, environmental change.

 

 

INTRODUCTION

 

The sections quoted below from the Climate Change Synthesis Report published by the IPCC  [1] in 2023 clearly illustrate the significance of the issue:

"Human activities, primarily through greenhouse gas emissions, have unequivocally caused global warming, raising the global surface temperature by 1.1°C in 2011-2020 compared to 1850-1900. Unsustainable energy use, land use and land-use change, along with historical contributions from lifestyle choices, consumption, and production patterns across regions, countries, and individuals, have continued to drive the rise in global greenhouse gas emissions... Widespread and rapid changes have occurred in the atmosphere, ocean, cryosphere [2], and biosphere. Human-induced climate change is already affecting many extreme weather and climate events across all regions of the world. This has led to widespread adverse impacts on nature and people, resulting in associated losses and damages. Historically, vulnerable communities that have contributed the least to current climate change are disproportionately affected...

Adaptation planning and implementation have advanced across sectors and regions, with documented benefits and varying effectiveness. Despite progress, adaptation gaps exist and will continue to grow at current implementation rates. In some ecosystems and regions, both hard and soft limits to adaptation have been reached. Maladaptation is occurring in certain sectors and regions. Global financial flows for adaptation remain insufficient, particularly in developing countries, limiting the implementation of adaptation options...

Ongoing greenhouse gas emissions will lead to further global warming, and under the considered scenarios and modeled approaches, the best estimate is that a 1.5°C threshold [3] will be reached in the near term. Every increment of global warming will intensify multiple and concurrent hazards. Deep, rapid, and sustained reductions in greenhouse gas emissions could lead to a noticeable slowdown in global warming within approximately twenty years and detectable changes in atmospheric composition within a few years...

For any future level of warming, most climate-related risks will be higher than those assessed in AR5, and projected long-term impacts will be several times greater than those currently observed. The risks, projected adverse impacts, and associated losses and damages from climate change will escalate with each additional increment of global warming. Climate and non-climate risks will increasingly interact, creating complex and cascading risks that are difficult to manage...

Climate change is a threat to human well-being and planetary health. There is a rapidly closing window of opportunity to secure a livable and sustainable future for all... Increasing international cooperation, including enhanced financial resource access for particularly vulnerable regions, sectors, and groups, as well as inclusive governance and coordinated policies, is essential. The choices and actions implemented in this decade will have impacts lasting for thousands of years." (IPCC, Climate Change Synthesis Report, 2023)

DEFINITION OF THE CONCEPT OF URBAN RESILIENCE

My first study on urban linear infrastructures was conducted as part of an OECD consultancy project. [4] Due to my consultancy work for the OECD, I examined and analyzed the linear infrastructures of Barcelona and Ankara. I presented the results of my study to the OECD in two reports. My first observation in this study, conducted in 1989, was that urban linear infrastructures were simultaneously experiencing both insufficiency and aging phenomena. While the population was rapidly increasing and new, advanced infrastructures were needed, the existing infrastructures were suffering from inefficiency and declining effectiveness for various reasons.

In the following years, the world, including Turkey, began to encounter the phenomenon of global warming and its resulting climate change. The first international measure against global warming came with the "United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change" held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. This agreement was followed by the "Kyoto Protocol" (1997), which aimed to limit greenhouse gas emissions to a specific level between 2005 and 2012. The third significant step was the Paris Agreement signed in 2015. This agreement regulates the obligation of all countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to limit global warming to an irreversible threshold of +1.5°C. Accordingly, countries were required to determine their national obligations in this regard and report them to the Secretariat. International negotiations on climate change continue through the annual Conferences of the Parties.

The term "urban resilience" refers to the ability of a city or urban area to withstand and cope with various pressures (natural disasters, climate disasters, economic shocks, health crises, etc.). Urban resilience is a broad concept encompassing a city's sustainability, adaptability, and recovery capabilities, including the following components:

1. Durability: Urban resilience refers to the durability of physical infrastructure and systems. Cities must strengthen and make their infrastructure resilient to natural disasters, climate change, and other potential risks.
2. Flexibility: Cities must demonstrate flexibility against various shocks. Flexibility in planning and infrastructure design refers to the ability to quickly and effectively adapt to changing conditions.
3. Diversity: Urban resilience promotes diversity across various sectors, income groups, and communities. This ensures that different segments and residents of a city are resilient to various risks.
4. Governance and Cooperation: Urban resilience requires effective governance and stakeholder collaboration. City administrations must establish effective cooperation between local governments, the private sector, civil society, and local communities.
5. Social Equity: Resilience includes policies and practices that serve all segments of society fairly and prioritize disadvantaged groups in crisis situations.
6. Community Participation: Urban resilience encourages the participation of local communities and residents. The ability of communities to engage in decisions that affect them can enhance resilience.

The goal of urban resilience is not only for cities to endure adverse events but also to learn from these events and develop in a more durable, sustainable, and socially just manner. Urban resilience is the capacity of a city to be prepared for, adapt to, and sustain its functions in the face of various environmental, social, and economic challenges. The United Nations defines urban resilience as "the ability of an urban system to withstand shocks and quickly return to normal functioning."

It can be said that the concept of resilience is closely related to the concept of sustainability in terms of shared principles and approaches. Urban resilience consists of three fundamental components:

1. Preparation: A city's preparedness for shocks includes efforts to prevent them, assess their potential impacts, and plan responses in the event of a shock.
2. Adaptation: A city's ability to adapt to change includes its capacity to adjust to evolving environmental, social, and economic conditions.
3. Recovery: A city's post-shock recovery involves repairing damaged infrastructure and services and restoring normal operations

Urban resilience is becoming increasingly important for cities to be resilient and sustainable in a changing world. Challenges such as climate change, population growth, and economic inequality are putting cities at greater risk. [5] Various measures can be taken to enhance urban resilience. These include the following:

• Building more resilient infrastructure: This involves constructing earthquake-resistant buildings, flood-resistant roads and bridges, and flexible energy grids.
• Promoting social cohesion: This involves developing policies that meet the needs of diverse communities and distribute resources equitably.
• Adapting to climate change: This involves reducing greenhouse gas emissions and developing adaptation plans that make cities more resilient to the impacts of climate change.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GLOBAL WARMING, CLIMATE CHANGE, AND URBAN RESILIENCE

The relationship between global warming, climate change, and urban resilience helps us understand how cities and urban areas respond to and adapt to the impacts of climate change:

1. Resilience of Physical Infrastructure: Global warming and climate change may expose cities to more frequent and severe natural disasters, especially events like temperature increases, extreme rainfall, floods, droughts, and storms. Urban resilience involves making cities' physical infrastructure resilient to these changing conditions, strengthening water and energy systems, and preparing for disasters.
2. Strategies for Addressing Climate Change: Urban resilience includes strategies for addressing the impacts of climate change. Cities can adapt to climate change by adopting policies and practices such as sustainable urban planning, green infrastructure projects, energy efficiency measures, disaster management plans, and water resource management.
3. Community Preparedness: Urban resilience also includes the ability of city residents and communities to cope with climate change. Awareness-raising, education, and community engagement ensure that urban populations are prepared for the impacts of climate change.
4. Development of Green Infrastructure: Resilience against global warming and climate change includes the development of green infrastructure. This involves the preservation and expansion of green spaces in urban areas, tree planting, and the creation of water storage areas. Green infrastructure can also help cities become more resilient in terms of water management and temperature regulation.
5. Energy Efficiency and Clean Energy Use: Urban resilience strategies also include increasing energy efficiency and using clean energy sources. Strengthening energy supply in cities can help make them more resilient to the effects of climate change.

For these reasons, adopting urban resilience strategies in the fight against global warming and climate change can contribute to preparing cities for a sustainable and more resilient future.

Global warming and climate change are key factors affecting urban resilience. The impacts of climate change are threatening cities in various ways, such as more frequent and severe extreme weather events, rising sea levels, and the spread of climate-sensitive diseases.

1. More Frequent and Severe Extreme Weather Events: Global warming is causing heatwaves, hurricanes, floods, droughts, and other extreme weather events to become more frequent and severe. These events can lead to loss of life and property, infrastructure damage, and economic losses in cities. [6]
2. Rising Sea Levels: Climate change is causing sea levels to rise, which exposes coastal cities and islands to flooding, erosion, and other risks.
3. Spread of Climate-Sensitive Diseases: Climate change is contributing to the spread of climate-sensitive diseases, posing a threat to public health in cities. [7]

To increase urban resilience, cities must be prepared for and adapt to the effects of climate change. This function includes various measures, such as building more resilient infrastructure, promoting social cohesion, and developing adaptation plans for climate change

 

MACROECONOMIC EFFECTS OF NATURAL AND CLIMATE RELATED DISASTERS

Before addressing the effects of disasters (whether climatic or natural), it is important to look at their negative impacts on the macroeconomic conditions of countries. Natural disaster events, such as the massive earthquakes on February 6, 2023, in Turkey, which caused the deaths of over 50,000 people and the destruction of 11 provinces, have enormous impacts on national economies. These effects can vary depending on the country's or region's economic structure, level of preparedness, and the severity of the disaster. The primary impact is economic loss. These losses lead to a decline in the production of goods and services, unemployment, and economic contraction. Disasters such as droughts, floods, and storms have devastated agricultural lands and adversely affected agricultural production. As a result, food prices have risen, and uncertainties in agricultural production and consumption balances have emerged. Disasters have also affected energy production facilities and energy transmission lines, damaging energy production and distribution systems and negatively impacting economic activities. Disasters place a heavy financial burden on insurance companies, forcing them to make large compensation payments and increase insurance premiums. In tourist areas (particularly in Hatay), disasters have caused infrastructure damage, wiping out tourism. The adverse impact of disasters on foreign trade is another issue worth examining. Disasters have impacted the labor market, leading to job losses and an increase in unemployment rates. After disasters, governments have had to make large expenditures for rescue and reconstruction efforts. For example, the cost of building 650,000 new houses. In this situation, public spending and internal and external debt are inevitably increased. Lastly, disasters have adversely affected human health and education. Many hospitals and healthcare institutions have been destroyed.

Humberto Lopez, the World Bank's Country Director for Turkey, stated during his speech at the 9th Sustainable Finance Forum: “The cost of making homes resilient in Turkey, alongside the climate crisis, exceeds 1 trillion dollars.” [8] Regarding the issue of strengthening existing homes in Turkey, Lopez said, “When we consulted with our Strategy Office, we calculated that rebuilding would cost 81 billion dollars, and combined with economic losses, the total cost would exceed 100 billion dollars.” He further mentioned, “This is more than 10% of Turkey's GDP. We are talking about a really big number.” Lopez also mentioned that the cost of making existing homes resilient is approximately 465 billion dollars and continued, “In recent years, Turkey has broken records in extreme heat events. About 20 years ago, there were around 200 extreme weather events in Turkey. This figure was found to have risen to 1,000 in recent years. What is the cost of adapting to climate change? The cost of mitigating climate change is expected to exceed 600 billion dollars in Turkey. That means 100 billion dollars for earthquakes, 500 billion dollars for strengthening homes and buildings, and with climate change, it exceeds 1 trillion dollars. This is 100% of the country's GDP. The total credit provided by the World Bank Group globally is 168 billion dollars. After the February 6 earthquake, we announced a 1-billion-dollar program.”

 

FINANCIAL EFFECTS OF NATURAL AND CLIMATE RELATED DISASTERS

It is clear that local governments play a crucial role in making both earthquake and climate change resilience measures effective. Limiting greenhouse gas emissions within city borders is one of the foremost issues. The number of countries developing policies and action plans to address global warming has increased significantly. These plans, which foresee “decarbonization,” aim to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases from cities. The measures to be taken vary from switching to clean fuels in public transportation to transitioning to district heating systems. The cost of such investments is immense. Humberto Lopez, the World Bank’s Country Director for Turkey, stated that Turkey will need an investment of 640 billion dollars to reach its net-zero emissions target by 2053. [9]

It is also known that the share of local governments in this total amount will be extremely high. In this context, local participation and action are constrained. Local political preferences may not always align with creating climate-resilient cities. Local-level adaptation, particularly in small municipalities, may conflict with the political priorities and sensitivities of elected local representatives. Most local decisions are made according to the expectations of their voters, and local representatives tend to focus on short-term actions rather than long-term adaptation solutions. For example, mayors may want to expand cities by constructing mass housing and covering land to increase municipal revenue, even in cities already prone to flooding. These decisions, which reduce resilience, can be partially explained by the dilemma between short-term election cycles and the long-term effects of adaptation measures. The fact that local decision-makers' individual interests regarding climate change are often not sufficiently aligned with the necessary adaptation measures leads to the perception that climate issues should be addressed only at the national level. Improperly designed national incentives can lead local governments to excessively rely on national governments for adaptation investments. While local governments can invest in adaptation measures to limit damages caused by climate events, post-disaster damages are typically covered by national institutions, thus discouraging local governments from making preemptive investments.

The development of technical knowledge and expertise regarding climate change adaptation can be very costly for most local governments. With the increasing frequency and intensity of climate variability and extreme conditions, most local governments need new and innovative adaptation knowledge and capacity that go beyond the current resources. Local governments often lack the technical expertise to conduct climate-related modeling. This technical capacity is expensive and is therefore generally developed and shared centrally at the national level. The design and implementation of adaptation solutions are often one-off actions, which do not justify the development of local skills, particularly in small municipalities. As a result, local governments do not invest in training personnel at the national or regional level to develop these technical skills.

If we consider the 640-billion-dollar figure mentioned by Lopez, it becomes clear that this amount is about 50% higher than Turkey’s 2024 budget. Turkey’s 2024 budget is 11.5 trillion dollars. When calculated at the current exchange rate, 640 billion dollars is approximately 18.5 trillion liras.

Given these realities, it can be concluded that local governments have limited capacity to create urban resilience and that the responsibility lies primarily with the central government. It is also evident that even the central government will struggle to meet the 2053 target.

THE IMPACT OF GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE CHANGE ON URBAN RESILIENCE

Global warming and climate change expose urban areas to a range of natural disasters, extreme weather events, rising sea levels, and other effects of climate change. This situation leads to a variety of factors that affect urban resilience.

1. Frequency and Intensity of Natural Disasters: Climate change can expose cities to more frequent and intense natural disasters. Events such as temperature increases, heavy rainfall, floods, droughts, storms, and hurricanes can pose greater risks to urban areas. This situation can negatively affect urban infrastructure, buildings, and communities, weakening their resilience.
2. More Frequent and Intense Extreme Weather Events: Global warming is causing heatwaves, hurricanes, floods, droughts, and other extreme weather events to become more frequent and severe. These events can result in loss of life and property, damage to infrastructure, and economic losses in cities. For example, the extreme heatwave that struck Europe in 2022 caused 15,000 deaths in France and led to a loss of 15 billion euros for the French economy.
3. Water Resource Management: Rising temperatures and changing precipitation patterns can affect water resources. Cities may struggle with water infrastructure systems such as water supply, wastewater management, and flood control. Urban resilience involves the ability to effectively manage water resources.
4. Temperature Increase and Health Effects: High temperatures can lead to health problems in urban areas. This situation can affect urban resilience, posing risks, particularly to more vulnerable groups such as the elderly and low-income communities. Cities must be prepared for heatwaves and their health impacts.
5. Energy Demand and Supply Security: Rising temperatures can increase energy demand. Cities must ensure the security of energy supply by making their energy infrastructure sustainable and resilient. The use of clean energy and energy efficiency are important strategies in this regard.
6. Sea Level Rise and Coastal Areas: Global warming can cause rising sea levels, leading to erosion and saltwater flooding in coastal areas. Urban resilience should include strengthening infrastructure in coastal areas and adapting to changes in sea levels. Climate change is causing sea levels to rise, exposing coastal cities and islands to floods, erosion, and other risks.
7. Spread of Climate-Sensitive Diseases: Climate change is causing the spread of climate-sensitive diseases, which poses a public health threat in cities. For example, the extreme heatwave in Texas in 2023 caused thousands of people to contract diseases such as malaria and dehydration.
8. Community Preparedness and Awareness: Dealing with global warming and climate change depends on the preparedness and awareness levels of communities. Urban resilience strategies should include raising awareness among city residents about the effects of climate change and encouraging participation in emergency plans.

For these reasons, it is crucial for cities to adopt urban resilience strategies to strengthen their capacity to cope with global warming and climate change.

The impacts of global warming and climate change reduce urban resilience in the following ways:

1. Preparedness: Cities face more challenges in planning and allocating resources to be prepared for risks such as extreme weather events, rising sea levels, and the spread of climate-sensitive diseases.
2. Adaptation: Cities face greater challenges in allocating more resources to restructure their infrastructure and services to adapt to the effects of climate change.
3. Recovery: Cities face more challenges in allocating time and resources to recover from the effects of extreme weather events and other climate change impacts.

STRATEGIES FOR INCREASING URBAN RESILIENCE

There are several strategies that cities can adopt to increase urban resilience. These strategies aim to enhance the ability of cities to withstand and adapt to natural disasters, climate change, health crises, and other stress factors.

1. Sustainable Urban Planning: Cities should focus on environmental factors such as increasing green spaces, enhancing energy efficiency, and managing water resources effectively by adopting sustainable urban planning principles.[10]
2. Development of Green Infrastructure: Green infrastructure includes the use of natural water purification systems, parks, tree planting, and other natural features. These measures can make cities more resilient to flooding, extreme temperatures, and other environmental stresses.
3. Strengthening Infrastructure: Building flood-resistant roads and bridges, earthquake-resistant buildings, and flexible energy grids is essential for increasing resilience.
4. Energy Efficiency and Clean Energy: Cities can strengthen their energy systems by increasing energy efficiency and transitioning to clean energy sources. This strategy can reduce energy demand and improve energy security.
5. Disaster Management and Emergency Planning: Cities should create effective disaster management plans to be prepared for emergencies. Emergency planning should include measures such as providing the public with accurate information and determining evacuation routes.
6. Water and Waste Management: Effective water resource management can increase resilience to water scarcity, flooding, and other water-related issues. Waste management strategies can also reduce environmental impacts.
7. Public Participation and Awareness: Raising awareness among city residents about climate change and natural disaster risks, as well as encouraging their participation, can enhance urban resilience. Active community involvement in these processes is essential.
8. Education and Capacity Building: Organizing training programs for city personnel and community members and building capacity can enhance their ability to respond quickly and effectively to crises.
9. Innovations and Technology Use: The use of new technologies and innovations can enable cities to manage crises more effectively. For example, smart city technologies can help develop early warning systems and rapid response strategies in various areas.

A combination of these strategies can help cities enhance their resilience, enabling them to adapt better to changing environmental conditions. Each of these strategies offers a different approach to increasing urban resilience. For instance, strengthening infrastructure aims to make cities more resilient to extreme weather events and natural disasters. Strategies that promote social cohesion aim to ensure that cities can meet the needs of diverse communities and provide support for everyone during crises. Climate change adaptation strategies aim to ensure that cities are better prepared for and able to adapt to the impacts of climate change.

Urban resilience strategies can vary depending on the size, location, and risks faced by a city. However, some general principles apply to all cities:

1. Risk Assessment: Cities should assess the risks they face and determine what measures can be taken to reduce these risks.
2. Planning: Cities should develop plans to prepare for potential shocks. These plans should include emergency response, communication, and recovery efforts.
3. Investment: Cities should invest in measures to increase urban resilience. These investments can be made in strengthening infrastructure, promoting social cohesion, and adapting to climate change.

Increasing urban resilience is a key way to make cities safer, fairer, and more sustainable.

URBAN LINEAR INFRASTRUCTURES

The term "urban linear infrastructures" is typically used in relation to urban planning and infrastructure systems. These infrastructures include various physical and technical elements that are essential for the development, sustainability, and livability of a city or region.

1. Roads and Transport Networks: Urban and intercity roads, streets, bridges, and public transportation systems play a significant role in urban areas. They are critical for the daily life of city residents and the functioning of economic activities.
2. Water and Sewerage Systems: Clean water supply, wastewater treatment, and sewage systems are essential for the healthy and sustainable development of urban areas.
3. Energy Infrastructure: The safe and efficient distribution of electricity, natural gas, and other energy sources is critical for the continuity of urban life.
4. Telecommunication Infrastructure: Telephone lines, internet access, and other communication infrastructures are essential for accessing information in today's world.
5. Green Spaces and Landscaping: Parks, gardens, and other green areas within the city not only increase aesthetic value but also support environmental sustainability.
6. Infrastructure Management: Management processes for effectively planning, constructing, and maintaining infrastructure systems are crucial for the long-term sustainability of urban areas.

The integration of these elements can significantly impact a city’s development, economy, and quality of life. Urban linear infrastructures must be strategically planned and maintained to allow cities to grow and adapt to changes.

Urban linear infrastructures are systems and structures that extend from one point to another and are essential for the functioning of a city. Without these infrastructures, people and goods cannot move, cities cannot supply clean water and energy, and wastewater cannot be treated. These infrastructures become increasingly complex as cities grow and develop. It is crucial that these infrastructures are sustainable and resilient, requiring regular maintenance, renewal, and updates. Improving urban linear infrastructures can help make cities safer, cleaner, and more sustainable.

EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE CHANGE ON URBAN LINEAR INFRASTRUCTURES

Global warming and climate change can have various impacts on urban linear infrastructures. These impacts play a significant role in the planning, construction, and sustainability of urban infrastructures:

1. Water Resources and Water Management: Climate change may lead to more intense rainfall, droughts, and changes in water resources. This can put pressure on water resources and management systems. Urban linear infrastructures, including water treatment plants, water distribution systems, and stormwater management systems, must adapt to the impacts of climate change.
2. Flood Risk and Infrastructure Damage: Increased heavy rainfall can raise the risk of flooding, which may affect urban infrastructures, especially drainage systems and riverbeds. Infrastructure damage may require costly repairs and improvements.
3. Heatwaves and Energy Consumption: Rising temperatures and heatwaves can increase energy consumption in urban areas. The urban heat island effect, in particular, may raise temperatures in buildings, which could affect energy infrastructure and increase electricity consumption.
4. Infrastructure Resilience: Climate change also affects the resilience of urban infrastructures. Increased extreme weather events (hurricanes, storms, floods) can damage infrastructures. Therefore, resilient construction materials and infrastructure designs become increasingly important.
5. Sea Level Rise: For coastal cities, rising sea levels may cause flooding and damage coastal infrastructures.
6. Pandemics and Health Infrastructure: Climate change can alter the distribution areas of vectors (e.g., mosquitoes), increasing the risk of infectious diseases. This situation may require health infrastructures to become more effective and flexible.

These factors may guide urban planners, engineers, and policymakers to create climate-resilient and adaptable urban linear infrastructures. Sustainable design, energy efficiency, and climate change mitigation strategies are crucial in this context.

Global warming and climate change impact urban linear infrastructures in various ways, including the following:

1. More frequent and intense extreme weather events: Global warming is causing heatwaves, hurricanes, floods, droughts, and other extreme weather events to occur more frequently and intensely. These events can damage urban linear infrastructures and disrupt their functions. For example, extreme heatwaves can damage power lines and roads, hurricanes can destroy waterways and sewage systems, floods can block roads and bridges, and droughts can dry out water and sewage systems.
2. Rising sea levels: Climate change is causing sea levels to rise, which exposes coastal cities and islands to flooding, erosion, and other risks. Rising sea levels can damage roads, waterways, and power lines.
3. Spread of climate-sensitive diseases: Climate change is contributing to the spread of climate-sensitive diseases. This can lead to public health issues that may disrupt urban linear infrastructures. For example, increasing temperatures can lead to heat stress and the spread of diseases such as malaria.

The effects of global warming and climate change on urban linear infrastructures pose a serious threat to cities. These impacts can disrupt economic and social functions and threaten public health.

METHODS FOR MEASURING THE EFFECTS OD GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE CHANGE ON URBAN LINEAR INFRASTRUCTURES

Measuring and evaluating the effects of global warming and climate change on urban linear infrastructure is a complex process involving various methods:

1. Modeling and Evaluation of Climate Scenarios: Climate models are used to simulate future climate change scenarios. These models predict various climate variables, such as temperature changes, rainfall amounts, and sea level rise. These predictions can be used to understand how urban infrastructure might be affected. This method involves using computer simulations to predict how urban linear infrastructures will respond to climate change and assess the likelihood of damage or disruption to their functions.
2. Risk Assessments: Risk analysis and risk assessment can be used to evaluate the impacts of climate change on urban infrastructure. This process involves identifying potential hazards (such as floods, droughts, and heatwaves) and determining their possible effects.
3. Infrastructure Resilience Assessments: Engineers and infrastructure experts assess the resilience of urban infrastructure by evaluating how well existing infrastructure can withstand extreme weather events, flood risks, or other effects of climate change.
4. Water Management Analyses: Hydrological models can be used to understand the impacts on water resources and water management. These models simulate potential changes in rainfall patterns, water levels, and water resources in a virtual environment.
5. Energy Consumption Analyses: Energy consumption analyses can be performed to evaluate the effects of high temperatures and heatwaves on energy consumption. This can help assess the performance of air conditioning systems and other energy-intensive infrastructure components.
6. Health Analyses: Epidemiological analyses can be conducted to evaluate the health impacts of climate change. These analyses may include assessing the risk of the spread of infectious diseases, the health effects of heatwaves, and other similar factors.
7. Statistical Analysis: Statistics are used to measure changes in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events that have occurred in the past. This information can be used to predict the potential impacts of future extreme weather events.
8. Observational Studies: The observational method is used to directly measure how urban linear infrastructures are exposed to and impacted by climate change. This method can help determine the extent of damage to infrastructure and how much its functionality has been disrupted.

The measurement and assessment methods outlined above provide urban planners, engineers, and policymakers with the information needed to develop strategies for addressing climate change. These strategies can be designed to ensure that urban linear infrastructures are resilient and adaptable to climate change.

INDICATORS USED TO MEASURE THE EFFECTS

Some specific indicators used to measure the effects of global warming and climate change on urban linear infrastructure are:

1. Frequency and Intensity of Extreme Weather Events: These indicators are the most commonly used to measure the effects of global warming and climate change on urban linear infrastructure. They track the frequency and severity of extreme weather events such as heatwaves, hurricanes, floods, droughts, and other weather extremes.
2. Sea Level Rise: This indicator is used to measure how global warming and climate change affect coastal cities and islands.
3. Spread of Climate-Sensitive Diseases: This indicator is used to measure how global warming and climate change impact human health. Climate change can lead to higher temperatures, which can increase heat stress and the spread of diseases like malaria.

Measuring the effects of global warming and climate change on urban linear infrastructure can help cities take the necessary measures to cope with these impacts.

EXAMPLES OF THE EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE CHANGE ON URBAN LINEAR INFRASTRUCTURES WORLDWIDE 

Global warming and climate change have caused various impacts on urban areas around the world:

• Miami, USA – Sea Level Rise: Coastal cities like Miami are facing rising sea levels, leading to frequent tidal events and coastal erosion. In Miami, areas have experienced increased flooding due to heavy rainfall and storms. The hurricanes that hit Florida in 2017 caused over $100 billion in damages, destroying roads, bridges, waterways, and power lines, severely affecting the city's infrastructure. [11]
• Tokyo, Japan – Heatwaves: Large cities like Tokyo are vulnerable to the effects of heatwaves. High temperatures increase energy consumption and have negative health impacts. This phenomenon strengthens the urban heat island effect. [12]
• Shanghai, China – Heavy Rainfall and Flooding: Climate change is increasing the frequency and intensity of heavy rainfall events in some regions. In large cities like Shanghai, this can trigger flooding events that damage infrastructure. [13]
• Lagos, Nigeria – Sea Level Rise and Coastal Erosion: Some coastal cities in Africa, like Lagos, are at serious risk due to rising sea levels and coastal erosion. These cities must strengthen their infrastructure against these changes. [14]
• Melbourne, Australia – Water Scarcity: In some regions of Australia, increasing temperatures and decreasing rainfall are affecting water resources. Cities like Melbourne are at greater risk of water scarcity, requiring more efficient water management infrastructure. [15]
• Rio de Janeiro, Brazil – Storms and Infrastructure Damage: Coastal regions in Brazil may face more frequent and intense storms as a result of climate change. This can lead to infrastructure damage and the need for urban planning adjustments. [16]
• 2022 Extreme Heatwave in Europe: An extreme heatwave that affected Europe in 2022 caused 15,000 deaths in France and inflicted €15 billion in damages to the French economy. The heatwave damaged power lines, roads, and buildings. [17]
• 2021 Flood in New York, USA: A flood in New York City in 2021 submerged buildings and caused damage to infrastructure. The flood destroyed roads, bridges, and sewer systems. [18]
• 2020 Bushfires in Australia: The bushfires in Australia in 2020 destroyed power lines, roads, and waterways. The fires disrupted electricity and water supply to cities, forcing people to leave their homes. [19]
• 2018 Flood in Houston, USA: A flood in Houston, USA, in 2018 caused over $30 billion in damages. It destroyed roads, bridges, and power lines, severely affecting the city's infrastructure. [20]

EXAMPLES FROM TURKEY
Turkey is a country that experiences the effects of climate change in many different ways. Some examples illustrating the impact of climate change on urban linear infrastructure in Turkey are as follows:

Istanbul – Sea Level Rise and Coastal Erosion: Istanbul may face coastal erosion and flooding due to rising sea levels. This can affect urban infrastructure, particularly the infrastructure in coastal areas. [21]

Marmara Region – Drought and Water Resources: In the Marmara Region, climate change may place pressure on water resources, with rising temperatures and decreasing rainfall. This can affect urban infrastructure in areas such as water consumption, agriculture, and energy production. [22]

Ankara – Heatwaves and Energy Consumption: In inland areas like Ankara, increasing heatwaves, especially during summer months, can lead to higher energy consumption. This can impact air conditioning systems and energy infrastructure. [23]

Mediterranean Region – Intense Rainfall and Flooding: In the Mediterranean Region, climate change may increase the frequency and intensity of extreme rainfall events. This can lead to more frequent flooding and damage to infrastructure. [24]

Eastern Anatolia Region – Rising Temperatures and Agriculture: Rising temperatures in the Eastern Anatolia Region can affect the agricultural sector. Reduced water resources may negatively impact irrigation systems and agricultural infrastructure. [25]

Black Sea Region – Increased Rainfall and Soil Erosion: In the Black Sea Region, increased rainfall can lead to more soil erosion. This may cause damage to infrastructure, particularly transportation infrastructure.

Extreme Weather Events: Turkey has become more vulnerable to extreme weather events such as heatwaves, hurricanes, floods, and droughts. For example, the extreme heatwave that struck Turkey in 2022 caused damage to electrical lines and roads. [26]

Climate-Sensitive Disease Spread: Climate change may lead to the spread of heat stress, malaria, and other climate-sensitive diseases in Turkey. For instance, rising temperatures could lead to more frequent and intense heat stress events in the country. [27]

The above examples demonstrate the potential impact of climate change on urban infrastructure in various regions of Turkey. Turkey must develop strategies that include sustainable planning, water management, energy efficiency, and other measures to adapt to and withstand these changes.

Turkey is a vulnerable country to the impacts of climate change. The country’s mountainous topography, coastline, and dry climate make it more susceptible to the effects of climate change.

PROJECTION OF NEGATIVE IMPACTS
It will be difficult to completely eliminate the negative effects of climate change on urban infrastructure in the future. However, if appropriate measures are taken and sustainable strategies are adopted, it is possible to reduce the negative impacts and adapt:

1. Sustainable Infrastructure Development: New infrastructure projects should be based on sustainable design principles. Energy-efficient buildings (green buildings), structures resistant to floods and other climate events, and green spaces can contribute to making urban infrastructure more resilient.
2. Water Management: Climate change can affect water resources, so it is crucial to adopt effective water management strategies. Methods like rainwater harvesting systems, water-saving measures, and efficient irrigation practices (drip irrigation) can ensure more sustainable use of water resources.
3. Green Infrastructure and Afforestation: Green infrastructure elements can reduce the urban heat island effect and increase environmental sustainability. Afforestation can provide benefits such as water absorption, air quality improvement, and shading.
4. Risk Management and Emergency Planning: Cities must be prepared for potential risks related to climate change. Emergency plans should include strategies to deal with floods, storms, and other extreme weather events.
5. Public Participation and Awareness: Active public participation and awareness are important in the fight against climate change. The public should be informed about environmental issues and the effects of climate change, and encouraged to adopt sustainable lifestyles.
6. Appropriate Policy and Governance: Effective policies and good governance are essential in addressing climate change. City administrations should adopt sustainability principles and develop policies accordingly. However, there are significant concerns in this area. [28]

These and similar measures can help urban areas adapt to climate change and minimize its negative impacts. However, this process should be supported by international cooperation, scientific research, and public participation.

Due to continued global warming and the intensification of the effects of climate change, the negative impacts of global warming and climate change on urban linear infrastructure are expected to increase in the future. This is because global warming causes more frequent and severe extreme weather events such as heatwaves, hurricanes, floods, droughts, and other extreme weather events. These extreme weather events can damage urban linear infrastructure and disrupt its functions.

Rising sea levels also pose a significant threat to urban linear infrastructure. The rise in sea levels exposes coastal cities and islands to flooding, erosion, and other risks. This can destroy roads, waterways, and electrical lines. An article published in National Geographic [29] states:
"Changes in sea level are linked to three main factors caused by ongoing global climate change:

1. Thermal Expansion: Water expands as it warms. About half of the rise in sea levels over the past 25 years is attributed to warmer oceans that occupy more space.
2. Melting Glaciers: Large ice formations, such as mountain glaciers, naturally melt to some extent every summer. During winter, snow generally replenishes this loss, mainly from seawater evaporation. However, recent high temperatures caused by global warming have led to above-average melting during the summer months and reduced snowfall due to later winters and earlier springs. This imbalance between surface runoff and ocean evaporation is contributing to rising sea levels.
3. Loss of the Greenland and Antarctica Ice Sheets: As with mountain glaciers, rising temperatures are causing the massive ice sheets covering Greenland and Antarctica to melt faster. Scientists believe that the melting water from the top and the ocean water from below are effectively liquefying the Greenland ice sheets, causing them to flow faster toward the sea. The melting of West Antarctica, particularly the 2017 break in the Larsen C ice shelf, has garnered significant attention, but glaciers in East Antarctica are also showing signs of instability."

When sea levels rise at such a fast pace, even a small increase can have devastating effects on inland coastal habitats, leading to destructive erosion, wetland flooding, aquifer contamination, and salinization of agricultural land, as well as habitat loss for fish, birds, and marine life.

Climate change also contributes to the spread of climate-sensitive diseases, which can lead to health issues that disrupt the functions of urban linear infrastructure. For instance, rising temperatures may contribute to heat stress and the spread of diseases such as malaria.

To reduce the negative impacts of global warming and climate change on urban linear infrastructure, measures must be taken to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and make cities more resilient to the effects of climate change.

EXPECTED NEGATIVE IMPACTS ON ISTANBUL

Istanbul is a metropolis experiencing the effects of climate change and is actively taking various measures to mitigate them. The anticipated negative impacts and the measures being taken are outlined below:

1. Sea Level Rise and Coastal Erosion: Rising sea levels and coastal erosion in the Bosphorus and Sea of Marmara can affect the city's coastal areas. Due to sea level rise, Istanbul has become more vulnerable to floods and erosion. For example, in 2022, some coastal areas of Istanbul were submerged due to the rising sea levels. As a result, the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality (IMM) is taking measures such as coastal protection projects and sea walls to safeguard these areas. [30]
2. Heatwaves and Energy Consumption: Istanbul may experience heatwaves, which could increase energy consumption. The local government is implementing measures to reduce energy use through energy efficiency projects and eco-friendly building standards. [31]
3. Heavy Rainfall and Flood Risk: Istanbul may face heavy rainfall, particularly during winter, which could increase the risk of flooding. IMM is taking steps such as strengthening infrastructure, improving stormwater drainage systems, and enhancing emergency response plans for flood situations. [32]
4. Transportation and Traffic Management: Rising temperatures in Istanbul could exacerbate traffic and air pollution problems. Therefore, IMM aims to improve the transportation infrastructure through strategies like expanding public transport, increasing bike lanes, and protecting green spaces. [33]
5. Green Infrastructure Projects: Projects to increase green spaces and develop parks within the city are efforts to mitigate the effects of urban heat islands. These projects aim to preserve and expand natural areas in various parts of the city. [34]
6. Extreme Weather Events: Istanbul has become more vulnerable to extreme weather events such as heatwaves, hurricanes, floods, and droughts. For example, the extreme heatwave that hit Istanbul in 2022 caused damage to electrical lines and roads. [35]
7. Spread of Climate-sensitive Diseases: Climate change may lead to the spread of heat stress, malaria, and other climate-sensitive diseases in Istanbul. For example, rising temperatures could result in more frequent and severe heat stress events. [36], [37]

These examples reflect the steps Istanbul is taking to combat climate change. However, it is essential to strengthen these efforts and implement sustainability and adaptation strategies more effectively. Istanbul is a city vulnerable to the effects of global warming and climate change, with its location, population density, and infrastructure making it more susceptible to these impacts.

EXAMPLES FROM THE PAST

Some events in Istanbul's history provide examples of the effects of climate change and environmental impacts:

• 1961 Flood: The flood that hit Istanbul in 1961 caused significant damage to the city's infrastructure. Roads, bridges, and power lines were destroyed.
• 1977 Flood: The flood that struck Istanbul in 1977 caused severe damage to the city's infrastructure. Roads, bridges, and power lines were again damaged.
• 1999 Earthquake: The earthquake that hit Istanbul in 1999 caused significant damage to the city's infrastructure, including roads, bridges, buildings, and utilities.
• 2022 Heatwave: The extreme heatwave in 2022 caused damage to electrical lines and roads and resulted in over 100 fatalities in Istanbul.
• 2009 Istanbul Flood Disaster: In 2009, Istanbul faced a flood disaster caused by heavy rainfall. This event tested the city's infrastructure systems, particularly stormwater drainage systems. The floods highlighted the challenges of urban infrastructure sustainability.
• 2017 Snowfall and Transportation Issues: In 2017, heavy snowfalls disrupted Istanbul's transportation infrastructure. Roads were blocked, and public transport services were disrupted, illustrating the impact of extreme weather on urban infrastructure.
• 2018 Istanbul Flood Disaster: In 2018, heavy rainfall in the summer led to severe flooding in Istanbul, particularly in its lower regions. The floods caused water accumulation and infrastructure damage, highlighting issues in urban planning and infrastructure management.

These examples demonstrate how Istanbul has been affected by climate change and extreme weather events in the past. They underscore the need for more effort and strategic development in urban planning, infrastructure, and emergency preparedness.

The 2022 heatwave presented a new threat to Istanbul's infrastructure. The heat caused damage to electrical lines and roads and led to over 100 deaths. These examples show that Istanbul must strengthen its infrastructure to become more resilient to the effects of climate change.

EXPECTED NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE CHANGE ON PUBLIC TRANSPORT IN ISTANBUL

The expected negative impacts of global warming and climate change on Istanbul's public transportation systems are as follows: [38]

1. Increased Temperatures and Comfort Issues: Rising temperatures due to global warming could lead to comfort issues for passengers traveling on public transport. Especially during peak hours and when air conditioning is not sufficient, the temperature inside the vehicles may increase.
2. Increased Frequency of Heatwaves: As the frequency and severity of heatwaves increase, disruptions and interruptions in public transportation systems may become more common. This could increase energy consumption and make it more challenging to maintain regular and efficient transportation services.
3. Flood and Overflow Risks: As heavy rainfall increases in Istanbul, the risk of flooding and overflow may also rise. This could increase the likelihood of metro stations, tram lines, and roads being submerged, leading to disruptions in public transport.
4. Infrastructure Damage and Repairs: Increased extreme weather events and climate change may damage public transport infrastructure. Damage from floods, storms, or other natural disasters could increase the costs of infrastructure repairs and maintenance.
5. Route Changes: Climate change may lead to higher demand for transport on certain routes or disruptions in specific areas. This may necessitate revisions to public transport routes, additional services, or alternative routes.
6. Increased Energy Consumption: High temperatures and heatwaves could result in more use of air conditioning systems, leading to an increase in energy consumption in public transport vehicles. This could drive up operational costs.

To mitigate these negative effects, it is essential to develop sustainable public transport strategies, adapt infrastructure to climate change, and establish emergency plans.

NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE CHANGE ON ROADS

The negative impacts of global warming and climate change on roads in Istanbul are as follows: [39]

1. Road Surface Damages: Rising temperatures and extreme weather events can cause cracks, deformations, and erosion on asphalt road surfaces. This increases road maintenance and repair costs.
2. Unsustainable Transportation Infrastructure: Increasing temperatures and heavy rainfall in Istanbul challenge the sustainability of the existing transportation infrastructure. The failure of infrastructure to adapt to these changes leads to transportation disruptions and safety issues.
3. Flooding and Inundation: Intense rainfall and flood risks increase the likelihood of roads being submerged. This negatively affects the movement of vehicles and endangers road safety.
4. Damage to Bridges and Tunnels: Bridges and tunnels in Istanbul are exposed to climate change effects such as changes in sea levels, heavy rainfall, and storms. These adverse effects necessitate regular maintenance and reinforcement efforts.
5. Reduction in Road Capacity: Rising temperatures increase traffic congestion and vehicle emissions, which in turn deteriorate air quality and reduce road capacity.
6. Dilemmas in Public Transportation: The inaccessibility of roads or traffic disruptions negatively affect public transportation systems. Increasing temperatures disrupt metro, tram, and bus services, reducing passenger comfort.

To mitigate these effects, climate change must be considered in Istanbul's infrastructure projects, sustainable transportation strategies should be adopted, and emergency action plans should be developed. Additionally, urban planning and infrastructure development efforts should be aligned with climate change adaptation. Roads are a crucial component of Istanbul’s transportation system. The effects of global warming and climate change severely disrupt the city’s road system and negatively impact Istanbul’s economic and social development.

To reduce these effects, the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality (IMM) has implemented several measures, including:

• Constructing roads resistant to extreme weather events
• Building flood protection walls in coastal areas to mitigate risks associated with rising sea levels
• Developing road maintenance and repair plans that incorporate climate change adaptation

Additional measures to counter extreme weather events include:

• Improving stormwater drainage systems on roads
• Using heat-resistant materials for road surfaces
• Ensuring the availability of vehicles, equipment, and personnel for repairing damage caused by hurricanes and floods

NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE CHANGE ON WATER AND SEWERAGE SYSTEMS

The expected negative impacts of global warming and climate change on water and sewerage systems in Istanbul are as follows:

1. Reduction in Water Resources: Rising temperatures and decreasing precipitation lead to a decline in water resources, affecting drinking water supply, irrigation, and industrial water usage. [40], [41]
2. Water Scarcity: Low precipitation and increasing temperatures cause water shortages, impacting the availability of drinking water and general water supply during periods of scarcity.
3. Increased Drought Risk: Istanbul faces an increasing risk of drought, which creates challenges for water supply. Low reservoir levels result in water supply disruptions and deterioration in water quality.
4. Flood and Inundation Risks: Intense rainfall and storms negatively impact sewerage systems and water treatment facilities, increasing flood risks and causing infrastructure damage.
5. Disruptions in Sewerage Systems: Increased rainfall and sudden weather changes overload sewerage systems, leading to malfunctions, overflows, and water pollution.
6. Sea Level Rise and Coastal Erosion: Climate change contributes to rising sea levels and coastal erosion, affecting water and sewerage infrastructure in coastal areas and increasing the risk of seawater intrusion into underground water sources.
7. Challenges in Water Treatment Facilities: Changing climate conditions affect the performance of water treatment plants, making water quality management more complex and costly.
8. Impacts on Water Quality: Climate change negatively affects water quality. Rising temperatures promote the proliferation of algae and bacteria in water bodies. [42]

To mitigate these adverse effects, sustainable water resource management, strengthened water conservation policies, flood management strategies, and climate-resilient infrastructure should be implemented.

Istanbul’s water and sewerage systems are among the city’s vital infrastructures. The impacts of global warming and climate change severely damage these systems, adversely affecting drinking water supply and wastewater management.

To mitigate these effects, the IMM has undertaken several measures, including:

• Constructing water and sewerage systems resistant to extreme weather events
• Building flood protection walls in coastal areas to mitigate risks associated with rising sea levels
• Improving stormwater drainage systems in water distribution networks
• Using heat-resistant materials in water and sewerage systems
• Ensuring the availability of vehicles, equipment, and personnel for repairing damage caused by hurricanes and floods

These measures will help reduce the damage that extreme weather events can cause to water and sewerage systems, making them more secure and resilient.

NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE CHANGE ON ENERGY INFRASTRUCTURE

The expected negative effects of global warming and climate change on energy infrastructure in Istanbul are outlined below: [43]

1. Increased Energy Consumption: High temperatures, especially during the summer months, lead to increased use of air conditioning systems, resulting in higher energy demand and an increase in electricity consumption.
2. Power Outages: Rising temperatures, sudden surges in energy demand, and extreme weather events cause disruptions in electrical grids. During peak usage periods, the energy infrastructure struggles to meet demand.
3. Water Shortages and Hydroelectric Power Production: Decreased rainfall affects the water sources of hydroelectric power plants, leading to water shortages and reductions in hydroelectric power generation.
4. Increased Heat: Electricity-powered devices and energy transmission lines heat up more due to rising temperatures, causing increased energy losses, reducing the efficiency of transmission lines, and raising costs.
5. Rising Sea Levels and Damage to Energy Infrastructure: Climate change causes rising sea levels and increases the risk of flooding due to extreme weather events. This damages energy infrastructure, particularly affecting energy facilities located in coastal areas.
6. Energy Production Imbalance Issues: Renewable energy sources, such as wind power, face challenges due to increasing wind fluctuations and variable weather conditions caused by climate change. This results in imbalances in energy production and difficulties in balancing supply and demand.

To address these negative impacts, strategies should be adopted in Istanbul, including making the energy infrastructure more resilient to climate change, implementing energy efficiency policies, and increasing the use of renewable energy sources.

Energy infrastructure is one of Istanbul’s vital infrastructures. The effects of global warming and climate change can significantly affect the city’s energy infrastructure and negatively impact its energy security. [44]

To mitigate these effects, the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality (İBB) is taking some measures, including:

• Building energy infrastructure resilient to extreme weather events
• Constructing flood protection walls in coastal areas to reduce risks from rising sea levels
• Developing energy plans that adapt to climate change

Specifically, measures to counter extreme weather events include:

• Improving rainwater drainage systems in electrical grids
• Using materials resistant to extreme heat waves in energy infrastructure
• Ensuring the availability of tools, equipment, and personnel to repair damage caused by hurricanes, floods, and other extreme weather events.

NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE CHANGE ON TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Global warming and climate change can have various negative effects on telecommunication systems in Istanbul:

1. Temperature and Equipment Performance: Rising temperatures adversely affect telecommunication equipment, causing devices to overheat, which can reduce their performance and shorten their lifespan.
2. Increased Energy Consumption: High temperatures lead to higher energy consumption in telecommunication infrastructure, and as climate control systems and cooling needs increase, energy costs and demand can rise.
3. Extreme Weather Events and Infrastructure Damage: Climate change can lead to extreme weather events, storms, and flooding, which can damage telecommunication infrastructure and cause network outages.
4. Rising Sea Levels and Coastal Erosion: Some areas of Istanbul face risks from rising sea levels and coastal erosion, which can affect telecommunication infrastructure in coastal regions.
5. Climate-Resilient Equipment: Climate change impacts the durability of telecommunication equipment, creating a need for more resilient and climate-adaptive tools and devices.
6. Water Damage and Power Outages: Heavy rainfall and flooding can affect cables and devices in the infrastructure. Additionally, extreme weather events may lead to power outages, negatively impacting communication infrastructure.
7. Data Center Performance: Rising temperatures increase cooling needs in data centers, raising both energy and system maintenance costs.

To mitigate these impacts, the İBB is taking some measures, including:

• Constructing telecommunication infrastructure resilient to extreme weather events
• Building flood protection walls in coastal areas to reduce risks from rising sea levels
• Developing telecommunication plans that adapt to climate change.

Taking these measures will make Istanbul’s telecommunication system more resilient to the effects of climate change. Specifically, measures to address extreme weather events include:

• Improving rainwater drainage systems in telecommunication networks
• Using materials resistant to extreme heat waves in telecommunication infrastructure
• Ensuring the availability of devices and personnel to repair damage from hurricanes, floods, and other extreme weather events
• Ensuring fiber optic cables are made from materials resistant to extreme heat waves and humidity
• Making mobile base stations resistant to extreme weather conditions such as strong winds and heavy rain
• Moving telecommunication networks underground in coastal areas to reduce risks from rising sea levels.

THE IMPACT OF GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE CHANGE ON GREEN SPACES AND LANDSCAPE

In Istanbul, global warming and climate change can have various negative effects on green spaces and the landscape, as outlined below: [45], [46]

1. Temperature Increase and Drought: Rising temperatures and decreasing rainfall increase the risk of drought, which negatively impacts the vegetation in green spaces, leading to drying out and weakening of plants.
2. Extreme Weather Events: Due to climate change, extreme weather events such as heavy rainfall, storms, and floods are becoming more frequent, resulting in damage to green spaces and an increased risk of erosion.
3. Plant and Habitat Changes: Temperature and climate changes affect regional vegetation, reduce the habitats of endemic plant species, and negatively impact biodiversity.
4. Decreased Water Resources: Decreasing rainfall and rising temperatures are causing a reduction in water resources, which makes it more difficult to irrigate parks, gardens, and other green areas.
5. Urban Heat Island Effect in Green Spaces: High buildings, asphalt roads, and other structures create urban heat islands, reducing the temperature-regulating effect of green spaces and weakening the cooling impact provided by vegetation.
6. Increase in Harmful Organisms: Temperature changes and increased humidity raise the likelihood of harmful insects and diseases spreading, which affects the health of plants in green spaces.
7. Rising Sea Levels and Coastal Areas: The coastal areas of Istanbul are being damaged due to rising sea levels, leading to erosion of green spaces in the coastal regions.

To reduce these negative effects, it is crucial to adopt sustainable practices such as green space planning and management, water resource management, drought-resistant strategies, and landscape designs that support local plant species. Additionally, urban planning and infrastructure development should be addressed in a way that is suitable for climate change.

Some measures are being taken by the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality (IMM), including:

• Developing green space and landscape designs resilient to extreme weather events
• Conducting green space and landscape works above sea level to mitigate risks from rising sea levels in coastal areas
• Developing green space and landscape plans that accommodate climate change

Particularly, the following measures can be taken to address extreme weather events:

• Improving rainwater drainage systems in green spaces
• Using plant species in green spaces that are resistant to extreme heatwaves
• Keeping devices and personnel on standby to repair damages caused by extreme weather events like hurricanes and floods in green spaces

These measures will make Istanbul’s green spaces and landscapes more resilient to the impacts of climate change.

THE IMPACTS OF GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE CHANGE ON URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE

Global warming and climate change can have various negative effects on the infrastructure systems in Istanbul. [47]

1. Flooding and Overflow Risk: Intense rainfall in Istanbul increases the risk of floods, affecting infrastructure systems, especially water and sewage systems, causing damage.
2. Sea Level Rise and Coastal Erosion: Due to global warming, rising sea levels increase the risk of erosion in coastal areas, which affects coastal infrastructure, damaging roads, ports, and other marine-related infrastructure.
3. Heat Islands: High-rise buildings, asphalt roads, and intense urbanization lead to the formation of heat islands in the city. This phenomenon can accelerate environmental temperature increases and raise energy demand.
4. Damage to Energy Transmission Lines: Extreme weather events such as storms and heavy rainfall can damage energy transmission lines, leading to power outages and damage to energy infrastructure.
5. Temperature Increase and Infrastructure Durability: High temperatures cause cracks in road surfaces, expansion issues in bridges, and durability problems in other infrastructure elements.
6. Water Shortages and Water Infrastructure: Decreased rainfall and rising temperatures lead to a reduction in water resources, which affects water infrastructure and causes restrictions in water supply.
7. Transportation Infrastructure and Traffic Problems: Rising temperatures, especially during the summer, cause excessive heating of asphalt roads, resulting in increased traffic problems, negatively affecting transportation infrastructure.
8. Infrastructure Repairs and Maintenance Costs: Temperature changes, extreme weather events, and other climate change impacts increase the need for more frequent repairs and maintenance of infrastructure, leading to higher costs.

To address these impacts, climate-resilient infrastructure projects should be developed, adopting strategies for resilience and durability, and emergency planning should be carried out. Additionally, sustainability-focused urban planning and infrastructure management strategies should be implemented.

To mitigate these effects, some measures have been taken by the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality (IMM), including:

• Constructing infrastructure resilient to extreme weather events
• Building flood protection walls along coastal areas to reduce risks from rising sea levels
• Developing infrastructure plans that adapt to climate change
• Improving stormwater drainage systems in infrastructure
• Using materials in infrastructure that are resistant to extreme heatwaves
• Having devices and personnel available to repair damage caused by extreme weather events such as hurricanes and floods
• Implementing water-saving systems in infrastructure
• Using drought-resistant materials in infrastructure
• Using materials in infrastructure that are resistant to extreme heatwaves

These measures will make Istanbul's infrastructure more resilient to the effects of climate change.

EXTREME WEATHER EVENTS: THE CASE OF ISTANBUL [48]

Extreme weather events are possible in Istanbul and its surrounding areas. Istanbul is located in a geography surrounded by the Black Sea to the north, the Sea of Marmara to the south, and the Aegean Sea to the west. This situation exposes the city to various climatic effects. In Istanbul, the effects of continental climate, maritime climate, and land climate come together. This causes various weather conditions to occur in different seasons. Additionally, due to climate change, increasing temperatures, changes in rainfall, and other factors may affect the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events.

Possible extreme weather events include:

1. Heavy Rainfall and Flooding: Heavy rainfall can occasionally occur in Istanbul, particularly in the fall and winter months. This can increase the risk of flooding.
2. Storms and Hurricanes: Storms coming from the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea can affect Istanbul. Especially during winter, strong winds and storms may occur.
3. Snowfall: Cold weather conditions in the winter months may cause snowfall in Istanbul. However, these events usually have short-term impacts in the city.
4. Heatwaves: During the summer months, heatwaves can affect Istanbul. High temperatures can impact life in the city and energy demand.
5. Tornadoes: Due to the maritime climate and the interaction of warm and cold air masses, tornadoes can occasionally be observed in the Istanbul area.
6. Heatwaves: Istanbul has a temperate climate and experiences heatwaves in the summer. Due to global warming, the frequency and intensity of heatwaves in Istanbul have been increasing.
7. Drought: Istanbul is located in a region with low rainfall. Due to global warming, the risk of drought in Istanbul is increasing.

It is important to be prepared for such extreme weather events and adapt urban planning to these events. Efforts in infrastructure, emergency management, and climate change adaptation in Istanbul aim to enhance the city's capacity to cope with such events.

Extreme weather events are likely in Istanbul and its surrounding areas. The effects of global warming and climate change are increasing the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events in Istanbul. Reducing carbon emissions, preserving and developing green spaces, and conserving water will help make Istanbul more resilient to the effects of climate change

CLIMATE CHANGE: A TRANSITION FROM CONTINENTAL AND MARITIME CLIMATES TO TROPICAL CLIMATE?

There are two separate views on this issue: The first view suggests that it cannot be claimed that the climate in Istanbul and its surroundings is transitioning to tropical climates. Tropical climates are generally found in wide regions located in the equatorial zone, between the 30-degree north and south latitudes. Istanbul, on the other hand, is located at 41 degrees north latitude, which places it far from the tropical climate zone. Istanbul is situated in an area where continental and maritime climate influences merge. It has a climate that can be cold and rainy in the winters and hot and dry in the summers. However, climate change may cause a global increase in temperatures and alterations in weather patterns. The rising temperatures, rising sea levels, and the increased frequency of extreme weather events due to climate change could lead to local climate changes as well. However, it is unlikely that these changes will result in a transition to tropical climates. Due to its geographical location, Istanbul will continue to experience both continental and maritime climate influences.

The second view suggests that it is possible to claim that the climate in Istanbul and its surroundings is transitioning toward a tropical climate. Istanbul has a temperate climate. The effects of global warming and climate change are making Istanbul's climate warmer and more humid. These changes have raised concerns about Istanbul's climate transitioning to a tropical climate.

For example, Prof. Dr. Murat Türkeş states: "Prof. Dr. Murat Türkeş, a member of the Board of Directors of the Boğaziçi University Climate Change and Policy Application and Research Center, says, 'With the effects of climate change, Turkey is transitioning from a subtropical climate to a tropical climate. The current temperature regime is almost approaching tropical climate conditions... With the effects of climate change, Turkey is moving toward a tropical climate from a subtropical climate. The current temperature regime is almost approaching tropical climate conditions. Especially the effects of winter are decreasing. Spring seasons can be milder. All of these indicate that we are moving into a milder period. All of these suggest that, in the future, there may be a tropical climate with two seasons, one cool and cold, and the other hot and mild, rather than the four-season model... Particularly, the rise in surface and lower atmosphere temperatures, and consequently the rise in ocean and sea water temperatures, along with related weather events, are influencing these changes. Climate change is altering regional air circulation, pressure, and wind systems... We must use less fossil fuel... We must use less fossil fuel in energy, transportation, agriculture, and housing. Energy efficiency and conservation principles should be applied across all sectors and in our daily lives. The proportion of new and renewable energy in primary energy sources should be increased. Our lifestyles and consumption habits must change. Public transportation should be developed to reduce the use of individual vehicles. With fundamental changes, we must reduce greenhouse gas emissions drop by drop." [49]

Some observations showing the effects of climate change in Istanbul are as follows:

1. Average Temperature Increase: The average temperature in Istanbul has increased by 1.5°C over the past 100 years. This increase has led to hotter summers and milder winters in Istanbul.
2. Changes in Precipitation: The amount of precipitation in Istanbul has varied over the past 100 years. However, there is a general trend of decreasing rainfall. This reduction is increasing the risk of drought in Istanbul.
3. Increase in Frequency of Extreme Weather Events: The frequency of extreme weather events in Istanbul is increasing. Heat waves, hurricanes, floods, and droughts are becoming more common in Istanbul.

These observations suggest that Istanbul's climate is transitioning to a tropical climate. Tropical climates are hot and humid. The increase in average temperature and the decrease in precipitation are making the climate in Istanbul hotter and more humid. These changes could lead to the emergence of tropical plant species in Istanbul and negatively affect the city's ecological balance. To prevent Istanbul's climate from transitioning to a tropical climate, measures must be taken to mitigate the effects of climate change. These measures include:

• Reducing carbon emissions
• Protecting and developing green spaces
• Water conservation

By taking these measures, Istanbul can become more resilient to the effects of climate change.

The appearance of tropical fish in certain regions and the occurrence of tornadoes are generally linked to climate change, temperature changes, and meteorological factors. These events can occur when specific climate conditions change or when tropical characteristics increase in that region.

1. Temperature Changes: Tropical fish generally prefer warmer waters. Climate change or regional temperature increases may cause these fish species to migrate further north or south. In this case, tropical fish that were previously unseen may appear in more temperate regions.
2. Increase in Sea Temperature: One of the factors influencing the migration of tropical fish is sea temperature. An increase in sea temperature may expand the range of tropical fish and allow them to appear at higher latitudes.
3. Weather Conditions and Tornadoes: Tornadoes are violent storms that form when warm and cold air masses meet. Climate change, temperature changes in the atmosphere, and rising sea temperatures can affect the frequency and intensity of tornadoes. Higher temperatures can lead to more energy accumulating in the atmosphere, increasing the likelihood of severe weather events.

However, the appearance of tropical fish in a particular region and the occurrence of tornadoes may not be solely due to climate change; they could result from a combination of various factors. These factors include sea temperature, water currents, food sources, sea currents, and wind. Additionally, the relationship between meteorological events and tornadoes is quite complex and cannot be explained by a single cause.

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Gökoğlu, a faculty member at the Faculty of Fisheries at Akdeniz University, who draws attention to the fact that migrations sometimes occur through the Suez Canal and the Indian Ocean, as well as the occasional entry of species from the Atlantic Ocean through the Strait of Gibraltar, states: "The main factor triggering these migrations is global warming. The Mediterranean is gradually becoming more tropical in terms of biodiversity... Nearly 100 fish species migrating from the Red Sea were detected in the İskenderun Gulf, and 65 fish species in the Antalya Gulf. Migrations are not limited to fish. All types of living groups in the marine environment are entering the Mediterranean... Many species of jellyfish seen in the Gulf are not native... Many species of crabs, algae, oysters, and mussels are also originally from the Red Sea. Similarly, some species of sea urchins and sea cucumbers, known as echinoderms, are exotic. We are frequently encountering pufferfish and lionfish. For example, the cardinal fish that has entered the Antalya Gulf has become a very dominant species." [50]

The appearance of tropical fish and the occurrence of tornadoes in Turkey and its surroundings are a result of the effects of climate change. Climate change is increasing the temperature of oceans. This rising temperature is causing the habitats of tropical fish to expand. Tropical fish are being forced to migrate to cooler waters, and as a result, they are beginning to appear in more northern regions like Turkey.

Tornadoes are extreme weather events typically seen in tropical and subtropical regions. Tornadoes form when warm and humid air meets cold and dry air. Climate change, by raising ocean temperatures, is increasing the likelihood of tornado formation.

Turkey, surrounded by the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea, and Aegean Sea, is at high risk for tornado formation. Due to global warming, sea temperatures in Turkey are rising, which is increasing the likelihood of tornado formation. The appearance of tropical fish and the formation of tornadoes in Turkey and its surroundings is a clear indication of the significant effects of climate change. To prevent these effects from worsening, measures must be taken to combat climate change.

• Appearance of Tropical Fish: Tropical fish prefer warm and clear waters. Due to climate change, ocean temperatures are rising, and the increasing warmth in temperate regions is expanding the habitats of tropical fish. For instance, tropical fish that were previously unseen in Europe are now being seen more frequently. The appearance of tropical fish in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea, and Aegean Sea in Turkey is a result of climate change.
• Formation of Tornadoes: Tornadoes form when warm and humid air meets cold and dry air. Climate change is increasing ocean temperatures, which is raising the likelihood of tornado formation. Turkey, surrounded by the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea, and Aegean Sea, is highly prone to tornado formation. Due to global warming, sea temperatures in Turkey are rising, which is increasing the likelihood of tornado formation. For example, a tornado in the Black Sea region of Turkey in 2023 was considered a result of climate change. This tornado was the first tornado to occur in Turkey. The appearance of tropical fish and the formation of tornadoes in Turkey and its surroundings show that the effects of climate change are reaching serious levels. [51]

 

 

EVALUATION, CONCLUSION, AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

Global warming and the resulting climate change phenomena are eroding the resilience of cities to natural and climate-related disasters. Climate change renders urban linear infrastructures non-functional in many ways. Countries are experiencing significant losses in various areas, ranging from tornadoes and floods to transitions from continental climates to tropical climates, from homelessness to the destruction of industries and agriculture. More importantly, the high costs of necessary precautions create significant macroeconomic and financial burdens on countries. Local governments have many measures they can take in this area; however, it is not feasible for them to bear the cost. Therefore, the responsibility for these measures must largely fall on central governments.

The effects of global warming and climate change severely weaken the resilience of cities to natural and climatic events. These phenomena negatively affect urban infrastructure in various ways, causing issues such as tornadoes, floods, climate-type changes, and housing problems. Additionally, this situation causes significant damage to industry and agriculture, disrupting the economic balance of countries.

What is crucial is the need to take measures to cope with these negative effects and minimize future risks. However, implementing these measures requires high costs and creates significant macroeconomic and financial burdens on countries. This highlights the reality that local governments cannot shoulder this responsibility alone. In this context, it is a fact that local governments can take various measures, but due to limited budgets, it is often not possible to cover the costs and implement them effectively. Therefore, in order to be more effective in combating climate change and take necessary steps for a sustainable future, the measures should be primarily led and undertaken by central governments. This should be supported not only at the national level but also through international cooperation and coordination. By doing so, effective global solutions can be developed to increase urban resilience and ensure stronger resilience in the fight against climate change.

Research on climate change and urban resilience is important for both generating new scientific findings and developing effective solutions. Here are some research topics that could be suggested in this area:

·        Local Economic Impacts of Climate Change: Research examining the impacts of climate change on the local economy in specific regions. Studies on the effects of natural disasters caused by climate change on local businesses and agriculture.

·        Urban Infrastructure Resilience and Climate Change: Research assessing the capacity of urban infrastructure to cope with climate change. Studies investigating the effectiveness and applicability of sustainable urban infrastructure projects.

·        Cost-Effectiveness Analyses: Cost-effectiveness analyses of measures to combat climate change. Research aimed at understanding local governments' and communities' tendencies to invest in measures against climate change.

·        Community Participation and Awareness: Studies evaluating communication strategies that encourage active participation of urban communities in combating climate change. Research on the effects of educational programs aimed at increasing public awareness of climate change.

·        Governance and Policy Analyses: Research examining the processes through which local governments develop and implement climate change policies. Comparative analysis of urban resilience policies in different countries.

·        Innovative Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: Research examining how innovative technologies (e.g., smart city technologies) can be used in climate change adaptation. Studies evaluating the effects of technological solutions on urban resilience.

These suggested research topics could be useful for generating more knowledge and solutions in the fight against climate change and enhancing urban resilience. Each topic could bring together researchers from various disciplines, offering a multifaceted perspective.

 

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END NOTES

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[1] Researcher ID B-2702-2008. Orcid number: 0000-0002-8756-1366. fyasamis@gmail.com

 

 

 

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[1] International Panel on Climate Change.

[2] Cryosphere refers to the areas on the Earth's surface where water exists in solid form, such as snow and ice. This includes sea ice, lake ice, river ice, snow cover, glaciers, ice sheets, and frozen ground. It has a significant overlap with the hydrosphere.

[3] At the point we have reached today, it is understood that even by 2030, this target will not be achieved, and we are in an irreversible process of global warming.r.euronews.com/green/2022/05/10/dunya-meteoroloji-orgutu-kuresel-s-nmada-1-5-derece-esigini-asma-olas-l-g-yar-yar-

#: ~#:~:text=1%2C5%20derece%20neden%20eşik,giderek%20daha%20riskli%20hale%20 geliyor.

[4]  OECD. Group on Urban Affairs. Project Group on Urban Infrastructure Policies. UP/UI Case Study No. 9: Urban Infrastructure Provision in Ankara. October 1989. Paris. OECD. Group on Urban Affairs. Project Group on Urban Infrastructure Policies. UP/UI Case Study No. 8: Urban Linear Infrastructures of Barcelona, Spain. October 1989. Paris.

[5] The expression "The ability of an urban system to withstand shocks and quickly return to its original state while maintaining its services" is defined in UN-Habitat's "Resilience Guide for Sustainable Cities" as follows:

"Resilient cities are those that are resistant to and can quickly recover from shocks and disasters. These cities have the capacity to maintain their services and meet the needs of their populations." Additionally, urban resilience refers to "the ability of urban systems to withstand shocks and rapidly recover, encompassing systems that provide essential services such as infrastructure, energy, water, transportation, communication, health, and education." Therefore, the aforementioned expression aligns with the definition of "resilient cities" as outlined in UN-Habitat's guide.

[6] Türkeş, M. (2001). Air, Climate, Severe Weather Events, and Global Warming. State Meteorological Affairs General Directorate 2000 Seminars, Technical Presentations, Seminar Series 1: 187-205, Ankara.

https://www.mgm.gov.tr/files/iklim/yayinlar/havaiklim.pdf

[7] Akalın, M. Küresel Isınma ve İklim Değişikliği Nedeniyle Oluşan Doğal Felaketlerin İnsan Sağlığı Üzerindeki Etkileri. Hitit Üniversitesi. Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi. Yıl:  6/2013 Sayı: 2. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/hititsosbil/issue/7715/101013

[8] Dünya Newspaper, 23 November 2023

[9] Sözcü Newspaper, 9 December 2023

[10] Görgülü, Ç. & Görgülü, L. (2021). Eco-Morphological Approach to Climate Change: Urban Periphery Belt Areas. JENAS. Journal of Environmental and Natural Studies, 3(1), 72-99.

Environmental and Natural Studies, 3(1), 72-99. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/jenas/issue/60444/886930

[11] Bianet. “ABD kıyılarında deniz seviyesi rekor ölçüde yükseldi”. 11 Nisan 2023.

[12] Urban Heat Island Effect: The temperature in city centers is 2-4°C higher than in suburban or rural areas.

[13] Dünya Newspaper. “Çin'de sel alarmı”. 17 June 2011.

[14] Duvar Newspaper. “Afrika'nın en kalabalık kenti Lagos selle mücadele ediyor: Yakında yaşanmaz hale gelecek”. 2 August 2021.

[15] Başman, C. & Ç. Bakırcı. Evrim Ağacı. "Australia’s Millennium Drought and Its Aftermath: Can Water Policies Save Our Future?" October 14, 2021.

[16] Profettura de Rio. Climate Change Adaptation Strategy for the City of Rio de Janeiro. https://www.rio.rj.gov.br/dlstatic/10112/9857523/4243336/ClimateChangeAdaptationStrategyfortheCityofRiodeJaneiro.pdf

[17] Euronews. "Extreme heat killed more than 20,000 people in Europe in the summer of 2022."

https://tr.euronews.com/green/2023/01/16/asiri-sicaklar-2022-yazinda-avrupada-20-binden-fazla-can-aldi

[18] BBC. "Flooding in https://www.bbc.com/turkce/haberler-dunya-58417450New York and surrounding areas: At least 20 dead, U.S. President Biden says this is proof of the climate crisis."

[19] According to a report published in 2020 by the Australian National Natural Disaster Arrangements Royal Commission, the bushfires that devastated the country in what is known as Australia's "Black Summer" resulted in the destruction of over 24 million hectares, the burning of 3,500 homes, and the loss of numerous animal lives.

[20] BBC. "Hurricane Harvey in the U.S.: Tens of thousands ordered to evacuate in Houston." August 28, 2017.

[21] Anadolu Agency. "Rising sea levels pose risks for coastal areas of Istanbul and Izmir." Biriz Özbakır, September 7, 2023.

[22] Water Policies Association. "Marmara Region: Drought and Water Resources at Risk!" Yıldız On, January 18, 2023.

[23] Karacan, G. & D. Gökçe. "Climate Resilience Theme in Urban Planning: The Case of Ankara." Resilience Journal, 4(2), 2020, 221-238.

[24] Ata, B. "Impact of Climate Change on Rainfall in the Mediterranean Region." Yeşil Haber, October 16, 2023.

[25] Çelik, M.A., İ. Kopar, & H. Bayram. "Seasonal Drought Analysis of the Eastern Anatolia Region." Atatürk University Journal of Social Sciences, September 2018, 22(3): 1741-1761.

[26] Ekosfer. "In 2022, the number of extreme weather events in Turkey reached 1,030, setting an all-time record."

[27] Aliravcı, I.D. "The Impact of Global Warming on Infectious Diseases." IGUSABDER, 16 (2022): 284-291.

[28] For more detailed information, please refer to the following works by Firuz Demir Yaşamış: Yaşamış, F. D. (1993). Belediye Reformu. Çağdaş Yerel Yönetimler, 2(2), 11-24. Yaşamış, F. D. (1993). Belediyelerin Temel Gereksinimi: Örgütsel ve Yönetsel Yeniden Yapılanma. Türk İdare Dergisi, 65(398), 159-177.

[29] Nunez, C. “Sea levels are rising at an extraordinary pace. Here's what to know. Seas are predicted to rise a foot by 2050, regardless of how much global carbon emissions can be reduced. Why is this happening, and what can we do to adapt?”. April 10 2023. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/sea-level-rise-1.

[30] Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality. "Istanbul Climate Change Action Plan: Climate Change Risk, Opportunity, and Vulnerability Analysis Report."

[31] Istanbul City Council Climate Crisis Working Group. "Opinions and Recommendations on Heat Waves – Information Note." June 30, 2020.

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[32] Kadıoğlu, M. "Urban Flood Management and Control Guide." Marmara and Bosphorus Municipalities Association, July 2019.

https://marmara.gov.tr/uploads/old-site/2020/10/KENT-SELLERI-kucuk.pdf

[33] Buldurur, M. S. "Sustainable Urban Transport." Birsen Publishing, December 2018, p. 331.

[34] Aksoy, Ö. & E. S. Arslan. "The Role of Green Infrastructure and Ecosystem Services in Reducing the Potential Impacts of Climate Change in Cities." İnsan&İnsan, 2022, 9(33): 53-62.

[35] Anadolu Agency. "Global climate change is triggering extreme weather events." January 31, 2022.

https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/cevre/kuresel-iklim-degisikligi-asiri-hava-olaylarini-tetikliyor/2489791

[36] Şeker, M. (Ed.) et al. Climate Change and Public Health Report in Turkey. Turkish Academy of Sciences, July 2020.

[37] Romanello, M. and  friends.et.al (2023) LANCET. The 2023 report of the Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: the imperative for a health-centred response in a world facing irreversible harms. November 14, 2023. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(23)01859-7.

[38] Tuğaç, Ç. "Green Transport in the Context of Climate Change and Urban Resilience." Urban Research Journal, 2022, 13(36): 545-575. Sayı Issue 36, Cilt Volume 13, Yıl Year 2022-2, 545-575. DOI:10.31198/idealkent.1061386. ISSN: 1307-9905. E-ISSN: 2602-2133. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/2206316.

[39] EUPAVE. "Concrete roads are more resilient to climate change and natural disasters."

https://www.turkcimento.org.tr/uploads/pdf/%C3%96ZET_B%C4%B0LG%C4%B0_-_Daha_Y%C3%BCksek_Dayan%C4%B1m.pdf

[40] Karaman, S. & Z. Gökalp. "The Effects of Global Warming and Climate Change on Water Resources." Journal of Agricultural Science Research, 2010, 3(1): 59-66.

ISSN: 1308-3945, E-ISSN: 1308-027X, www.nobel.gen.tr

[41] Çapar, G. Water Resource Management and Climate Change. Climate Change Education Modules Series 8.

http://suyonetimi.ankara.edu.tr/wp-content/uploads/sites/88/2019/10/%C4%B0klim%C4%B0N-Projesi-E%C4%9Fitim-Serisi-Mod%C3%BCl-8.pdf

[42] Eutrophication: The process by which water bodies become overly enriched with nutrients, leading to excessive algae growth and oxygen depletion, disrupting aquatic ecosystems.

[43] Fatma Aysun KAPLAN, F.A. (2023) Impact of Climate Change on Hydroelectric Power Plants. DSİ Technical Bulletin. 141, January 2023. https://cdniys.tarimorman.gov.tr/api/File/GetFile/471/Sayfa/1639/2069/DosyaGaleri/2._makale.pdf

[44] Uğurlu, Ö. ve İ. Ö. Güler. (2020) Impact of Global Warming on Eenrgy Resources. June 2020. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342449096_TURKIYE'DE_KURESEL_ISINMANIN_ENERJI_KAYNAKLARI_UZERINE_ETKISI

[45] Bayramoğlu, E. ve s. Seyhan. (2019) Cliamate Change in Urban Green Spaces. https://doi.org/10.36287/setsci.4.7.005.

[46] Aksoy, Ö. K. ve E. S. Arslan. (2022) The Role of Green Infrastructure and  Ecosystem Functions in Reducing Potential Impacts of Climate Change. İnsan ve İnsan.  Year 2022, Volume: 9. Issue: 33, 53 - 62, 01.07.2022.

https://doi.org/10.29224/insanveinsan.1104391

[47] Thomas J. Wilbanks, T. J. ve S. J. Fernandez. (ed al.) (2014) Climate Change and Infrastructure, Urban Systems, and Vulnerabilities. Technical Report for the US Department of Energy in Support of the National Climate Assessment.  National climate assessment regional technical input report series. Island Press. http://ndl.ethernet.edu.et/bitstream/123456789/69221/1/Thomas%20J.%20Wilbanks.pdf

[48] İBB. (2021) Istanbul Climate Change Action Plan. https://cevre.ibb.istanbul/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/ist_iklim_degisikligi_eylem_plani.pdf

[49] https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/turkiye/turkiye-subtropikal-iklimden-tropikal-iklime-geciyor/1620039

[50] https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/turkiye/akdenizde-yerli-baliklar-azaliyor-tropikal-balik-turleri-artiyor/1853713

[51] https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/gundem/turkiyede-hortum-ve-benzeri-firtinalarin-gorulme-sikligi-artti/2760399